1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions

This section provides an overview of the history of psychology, with emphasis on the important questions psychologists ask and the major approaches (schools) to psychological research. Table 1. 4, "History of Psychology," is a timeline of the most important psychologists, beginning with the early Greek philosophers and continuing through modern times. Tables 1. 3 and 1. 4 also provide a selection of the most important schools and figures. It is not possible in one chapter to mention every approach and every psychologist who has contributed to the field. The approaches psychologists have used to evaluate problems of interest have changed dramatically throughout the history of psychology. Perhaps most importantly, as the technology available to study human behavior has improved, the field has steadily moved away from speculation about behavior to a more objective, scientific approach (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). There has also been an influx of women into the field. While most of the early psychologists were men, today most psychologists are women, including the presidents of major psychology organizations.

Table 1. 3 Most Important Approaches (Schools) in Psychology.

[Table omitted]
Schools of Psychology	Description	Major Contributors
Structural	Uses introspection to reveal the basic elements or "structure" of psychological experience.	Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener
Functional	Attempts to understand why animals and humans have the particular psychological profiles they do.	William James
Psychodynamicists	Focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, emotions, memories, and early childhood experiences in determining human behavior	Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson
Behavioral	Based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should focus their attention on the study of behavior itself.	John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner
Dissenting Views	Study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment	Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederick Bartlett, Jean Piaget
Social and Political Science	Study of how people's social circumstances and culture affect their thoughts and behavior.	Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter This section provides an overview of the history of psychology, with emphasis on the important questions psychologists ask and the major approaches (schools) to psychological research. Table 1. 4, “History of Psychology,” is a timeline of the most important psychologists, beginning with the early Greek philosophers and continuing through modern times. Tables 1. 3 and 1. 4 also provide a selection of the most important schools and figures. It is not possible in one chapter to mention all the approaches and all the psychologists who have contributed to the field. The approaches psychologists have used to evaluate problems of interest have changed dramatically throughout the history of psychology. Perhaps most importantly, as the technology available to study human behavior has improved, the field has steadily moved away from speculation about behavior to a more objective, scientific approach (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). There has also been an influx of women into the field. While most early psychologists were men, today most psychologists are women, including the presidents of major psychology organizations.

Table 1. 3 Most important approaches (schools) of psychology.

• [table omitted]
• Schools of Psychology
• Description
• Major Contributors
• Structural

Uses introspection to reveal the basic elements or "structure" of psychological experience.

Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener

[Table omitted]
Attempts to understand why animals and humans have the particular psychological profiles they do.	William James	Description
Attention to the role of unconscious thoughts, emotions, memories, and early childhood experiences in determining human behavior	Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson	Behavior
Based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should focus their attention on the study of behavior itself.	John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner	Dissenting views
The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment	Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederick Bartlett, Jean Piaget	Social and political science
The study of how people's social circumstances and culture affect their thinking and behavior.	Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter	This section provides an overview of the history of psychology, with emphasis on the important questions psychologists ask and the main approaches (schools) of psychological research. Table 1. 4 "History of Psychology" is a timeline of the most important psychologists, beginning with the early Greek philosophers and continuing through the present day. Tables 1. 3 and 1. 4 also provide a selection of the most important schools and people. It is not possible in one chapter to mention all the approaches and all the psychologists who have contributed to the field. The approaches psychologists have used to evaluate problems of interest have changed dramatically throughout the history of psychology. Perhaps most importantly, as the technology available to study human behavior has improved, the field has steadily moved away from speculation about behavior toward a more objective, scientific approach (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). There has also been an influx of women into the field. While most early psychologists were men, today most psychologists are women, including the presidents of major psychology societies.
Table 1. 3 Most Important Approaches (Schools) in Psychology.	[Table omitted]	Social and political science
Description	Major Contributors	This section provides an overview of the history of psychology, with emphasis on the important questions psychologists ask and the main approaches (schools) of psychological research. Table 1. 4 "History of Psychology" is a timeline of the most important psychologists, beginning with the early Greek philosophers and continuing through the present day. Tables 1. 3 and 1. 4 also provide a selection of the most important schools and people. It is not possible in one chapter to mention all the approaches and all the psychologists who have contributed to the field. The approaches psychologists have used to evaluate problems of interest have changed dramatically throughout the history of psychology. Perhaps most importantly, as the technology available to study human behavior has improved, the field has steadily moved away from speculation about behavior toward a more objective, scientific approach (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). There has also been an influx of women into the field. While most early psychologists were men, today most psychologists are women, including the presidents of major psychology societies.
Uses introspection to uncover the basic elements or "structure" of psychological experience.	Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener	Functional
The effort to understand why animals and humans have the particular psychological aspects they do.	William James	Psychodynamicists
Focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, emotions, memories, and early childhood experiences in determining human behavior	Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson	Behavior
Based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should turn their attention to the study of behavior itself.	William James	Dissenting views
Study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment	Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederick Bartlett, Jean Piaget	Social and political science
Study of how the social situation and culture in which a person finds himself affect his thoughts and behavior.	Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter	Most of the early psychologists were male, but women are increasingly contributing to psychology. The following is an example:
1968: Mary Gene Light is the first female chairman of the Canadian Psychological Society.	1970: Virginia Douglas became the second chairman of the Canadian Psychological Society.	1972: Underground symposium was held at the Canadian Psychological Society. After a personal dissertation was rejected and the symposium was rejected by the program committee, a group consisting of six graduate students and unpopified teachers, including Sandra Pike and Esther Green Glass, are researched in the female psychology. Was an independent research symposium to announce.
1976: The Canadian Research Institute is established to improve women's status.	1987: Janet Stopard leads a woman from the Canadian Mental Health Association and a mental health committee.	It cannot cover all important psychologists, but the following chronology shows the most important person who contributed to the history of psychology. (Quoted from J. Walinga)
Table 1. 4 History of psychology	[Table is omitted]	date
Psychologist	Description	BC 428 to 347
Plato	A Greek philosopher who advocated the role of nature in psychological development.	BC 384 to 432
Aristotle	A Greek philosopher who asserted the role of culture in psychological development.	CD 1588 to 1679
Thomas Hobbes	British philosopher.	1596 to 1650 AD
1515-1515	French philosopher.	1632 to 1704
1850	John Rock	British philosopher
1880	1712 to 1778	Jea n-Jack Rousseau
1950	French philosopher	From 1801 to 1887
1960	Gustav Fehehiner	German experimental psychologist. Developed the concept of "simple discount (JND)", which is the first empirical psychological measurement.
1970	1809 to 1882	Charles Darwin

British artist. The theory of natural selection affected the field of functional schools and evolutionary psychology.

• From 1832 to 1920
• Wilhelm Want
• A German psychologist who opened one of the first psychology institute and contributed to the development of the field of structuralism.

• 1842 to 1910
• William James

Early Psychologists

An American psychologist who opened one of the first psychological institute and contributed to the development of the field of functionalism.

1849 to 1936

Ivan Paul

Structuralism: Introspection and the Awareness of Subjective Experience

A Russian psychologist who conducted a learning experiment and led the principle of classical conditions.

1850 to 1909

Hermann Ebning House

Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology

A German psychologist who studied the ability to memorize the meaningless sound list under various conditions.

1856 to 1939

Psychodynamic Psychology

Sigmund Freud

An Austrian psychologist established the field of mental dynamics.

1867 to 1927

Behaviourism and the Question of Free Will

Edward Bradford Titchner

An American psychologist who contributed to the field of structuralism.

1878 to 1958

Research Focus: Do We Have Free Will?

John B. Watson

An American psychologist who contributed to the field of behavioralism.

1886 to 1969

Frederick Bartlet

The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience

A British psychologist who studied cognitive and social processes of memory.

The War of the Ghosts

1896 to 1980

Jean Piage

Social-Cultural Psychology

A Swiss psychologist who built an important theory about the cognitive development of children.

1904-1990

B. F. Skinner

The Many Disciplines of Psychology

An American psychologist who contributed to the behavioral school.

1926-1993

[Table omitted]
A British cognitive psychologist, a pioneer in research.	Description	Linda Bartishk; Daniel Carneman? Elizabeth Loftus Geroge Miller
An American psychologist who contributed to cognitive psychology in study, memory, and judgment. A significant contribution to the development of the neuroscience field. Daniel Carneman has won the Nobel Prize in Economics for psychological decisio n-making research.	Drotea Dix	A Canadian psychologist known for his contribution to mental health, opened one of his first mental hospitals in Halifax, Novascosia.
William Rial? James Baldwin	A Canadian psychologist who wrote the early psychology textbook and established Canada's first Psychology Laboratory at the University of Toronto.	James All's; Brenda Milner? Wilder Penfield; Donald Hebu?
A Canadian psychologist who contributed to neural psychology and opened the Montreal Neurology Research Institute.	Albert Bandura	A Canadian psychologist who developed "social learning theory" through research by Bobo Doll, which indicates the effects of observation and interactions on learning.
Hans Serie	A Canadian psychologist who greatly contributed to the field of stress psychology.	Psychology has changed dramatically in its history, but the most important question for psychologists was unchanged. Discuss some of these questions in both this chapter and the following chapters:
Nature vs. Nurture. Which is more important in determining individual behavior and explaining differences between humans, genes or environment? Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play important roles in most human behavior, but there is still much to learn about how nature (our biological makeup) and culture (the experiences we have throughout our lives) interact (Harris, 1998? For example, height, intelligence, optimism, etc.). The proportion of observed differences in traits among people that can be attributed to genetics is known as trait heritability, and we will use this term a lot in the coming chapters. For example, intelligence has a very high heritability (about 0. 85 out of 1. 0), and extroversion has a heritability of about 50 out of 1. However, nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making it very difficult to answer the question, "Is it nature or nurture?".	Free Will vs. Determinism This question is about the extent to which people have control over their behavior. Are we products of our environment and guided by forces beyond our control? Many of us would like to believe in free will. And our legal system is based on the concept of free will. We punish criminals because we believe they have a choice about their actions and freely choose to break the law. However, as we will see later in the research focus of this section, recent research suggests that we may have less control over our actions than we think (Wegner, 2002). Nature vs. Nurture. Which is more important in determining individual behavior and explaining differences between humans? Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play an important role in most human behavior, but there is still much to learn about how nature (our biological makeup) and culture (the experiences we have throughout our lives) interact (Harris, 1998? For example, height, intelligence, optimism, etc.). The proportion of observed differences in traits among people that can be attributed to genetics is known as trait heritability, and we will use this term a lot in the coming chapters. For example, intelligence is highly heritable (about 0. 85 out of 1. 0), and extroversion is about 50 times heritable. However, nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making it very difficult to answer the question, "Is it nature or nurture?".	Free Will vs. Determinism This question is about the extent to which people have control over their behavior. Are we products of our environment and guided by forces beyond our control? Many of us would like to believe in free will. And our legal system is based on the concept of free will. We punish criminals because we believe they have a choice about their behavior and that they freely choose to break the law. However, as we will see later in the research focus of this section, recent research suggests that we may have less control over our behavior than we think (Wegner, 2002). Nature vs. Nurture. Is it more important, genes or environment, in determining individual behavior and explaining differences between humans? Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play important roles in most human behavior, but there is still much to learn about how nature (our biological makeup) and culture (the experiences we have throughout our lives) interact (Harris, 1998? For example, height, intelligence, optimism, etc.). The proportion of observed differences in traits among people that can be attributed to genetics is known as trait heritability, and we will use this term a lot in the coming chapters. For example, intelligence has a very high heritability (about 0. 85 out of 1. 0), and extroversion has a heritability of about 50 out of 1. However, nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making it very difficult to answer the question, "Is it nature or nurture?".
Free Will vs. Determinism This question is about the extent to which people have control over their behavior. Are we the product of our environment, guided by forces beyond our control? Many of us would like to believe in free will. And our legal system is based on the concept of free will. We punish criminals because we believe they have choice about their behavior and are free to choose to break the law. However, as the research focus of this section will explain, recent research suggests that we may have less control over our behavior than we think (Wegner, 2002).	Accuracy and incorrectness. How well humans have good information processing abilities? Humans seem to have enough abilities to understand the surrounding world and make appropriate decisions (Fiske, 2003), but not perfect. Human judgments can be impaired by the incorrectness of the thinking style, motivation and emotions. For example, our judgment can be affected by the desire to gain material richness, to grasp themselves positively, and emotional reactions to what happened to you. Many studies are studying decisio n-making in crisis situations such as natural disasters, artificial mistakes, and criminal acts such as Tyrolian poisoning 1).	Conscious processing and unconscious processing. How much are we aware of our actions and its causes? Also, how much is our actions caused by the inconsistent effects? From Freud's theory of psychiatric dynamics to research on modern cognitive psychology, many of the main theories of psychology are determined by many of our actions by variables that we are not aware of. There is.
Differences and similarities. How far are we similar and different? For example, is there a basic psychological and personality difference between men and women, or is men and women similar? What about people with different ethnic groups and cultures? Are people around the world generally the same, or are they affected by their backgrounds and environments? Personality psychologists, social psychologists, and different cultural psychologists are trying to answer these classic questions.	The first psychologists we know are Greek philosopher Prato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These philosopher (see Figure 1. 3) have been asking a lot of questions that today's psychologists ask. For example, they questioned the distinction between naturally and raised and the existence of free will. Regarding the former, Plato believed that some kind of knowledge was born and claimed that it would stand on the side of nature. Aristotle, on the other hand, was on the side of the religion, all children were born as "blank blanks in the sky" (Tabla Lhasa in Latin), and that knowledge is mainly gained through learning and experience. < SPAN> accuracy and incorrectness. How well humans have good information processing abilities? Humans seem to have enough abilities to understand the surrounding world and make appropriate decisions (Fiske, 2003), but not perfect. Human judgments can be impaired by the incorrectness of the thinking style, motivation and emotions. For example, our judgment can be affected by the desire to gain material richness, to grasp themselves positively, and emotional reactions to what happened to you. Many studies are studying decisio n-making in crisis situations such as natural disasters, artificial mistakes, and criminal acts such as Tyrolian poisoning 1).	Conscious processing and unconscious processing. How much are we aware of our actions and its causes? Also, how much is our actions caused by the inconsistent effects? From Freud's theory of psychiatric dynamics to research on modern cognitive psychology, many of the main theories of psychology are determined by many of our actions by variables that we are not aware of. There is.
Differences and similarities. How far are we similar and different? For example, is there a basic psychological and personality difference between men and women, or is men and women similar? What about people with different ethnic groups and cultures? Are people around the world generally the same, or are they affected by their backgrounds and environments? Personality psychologists, social psychologists, and different cultural psychologists are trying to answer these classic questions.	The first psychologists we know are Greek philosopher Prato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These philosopher (see Figure 1. 3) have been asking a lot of questions that today's psychologists ask. For example, they questioned the distinction between naturally and raised and the existence of free will. Regarding the former, Plato believed that some kind of knowledge was born and claimed that it would stand on the side of nature. Aristotle, on the other hand, was on the side of the religion, all children were born as "blank blanks in the sky" (Tabla Lhasa in Latin), and that knowledge is mainly gained through learning and experience. Accuracy and incorrectness. How well humans have good information processing abilities? Humans seem to have enough abilities to understand the surrounding world and make appropriate decisions (Fiske, 2003), but not perfect. Human judgments can be impaired by the incorrectness of the thinking style, motivation and emotions. For example, our judgment can be affected by the desire to gain material richness, to grasp themselves positively, and emotional reactions to what happened to you. Many studies are studying decisio n-making in crisis situations such as natural disasters, artificial mistakes, and criminal acts such as Tyrolian poisoning 1).	Conscious processing and unconscious processing. How much are we aware of our actions and its causes? Also, how much is our actions caused by the inconsistent effects? From Freud's theory of psychiatric dynamics to research on modern cognitive psychology, many of the main theories of psychology are determined by many of our actions by variables that we are not aware of. There is.
Differences and similarities. How far are we similar and different? For example, is there a basic psychological and personality difference between men and women, or is men and women similar? What about people with different ethnic groups and cultures? Are people around the world generally the same, or are they affected by their backgrounds and environments? Personality psychologists, social psychologists, and different cultural psychologists are trying to answer these classic questions.	The first psychologists we know are Greek philosopher Prato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). These philosopher (see Figure 1. 3) have been asking a lot of questions that today's psychologists ask. For example, they questioned the distinction between naturally and raised and the existence of free will. Regarding the former, Plato believed that some kind of knowledge was born and claimed that it would stand on the side of nature. Aristotle, on the other hand, believes that all children are born on the side of the religion, all children are born as "blank blanks in the sky" (Latin in Latin), and that knowledge is mainly gained through learning and experience.	Figure 1. 3 Initial psychologists are the first psychologists of Greek philosopher Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato believed that a lot of knowledge was born, and Aristotle believed that all children were born as "empty plates" and their knowledge was mainly acquired through learning and experience.
European philosopher continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance period. For example, French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) also adopted the problem of free will, claiming that the mind controls the body through the pine benefits of the brain (then at that time (at that time, at that time). It was a certain point of reason, but it was proved later that it was wrong). Descartes also believed in the existence of natural natural abilities. Descartes, who were also scientists and philosopher, first understood that they intervened in animals and that their nerves were controlling muscles. He also mentions the relationship between the mind (the spiritual aspect of life) and the body (the physical aspect of life). Descartes believed the dual principle that the heart was fundamentally different from a mechanical body. Other European philosophers such as Thomas Hobbs (1588-1679), John Rock (1632-1704), and Jean Jack Rousseau (1712-1778) also emphasized these issues. The fundamental problem faced by these philosopher was that there was almost no way to solve their claims. Most of the philosopher did not conduct these issues, but one of the reasons was that they did not know how to do it yet, and that it was possible to objectively study human experience. It was not. However, in the 1800s, dramatic changes occurred with the help of the first two researchers. < SPAN> Figure 1. 3 The first psychologists of the early psychologists are Greek philosopher Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato believed that a lot of knowledge was born, and Aristotle believed that all children were born as "empty plates" and their knowledge was mainly acquired through learning and experience.	European philosopher continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance period. For example, French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) also adopted the problem of free will, claiming that the mind controls the body through the pine benefits of the brain (then at that time (at that time, at that time). It was a reason that it took some reason, but it was proved later that it was wrong). Descartes also believed in the existence of natural natural abilities. Descartes, who were also scientists and philosopher, first understood that they intervened in animals and that their nerves were controlling muscles. He also mentions the relationship between the mind (the spiritual aspect of life) and the body (the physical aspect of life). Descartes believed the dual principle that the heart was fundamentally different from a mechanical body. Other European philosophers such as Thomas Hobbs (1588-1679), John Rock (1632-1704), and Jean Jack Rousseau (1712-1778) also emphasized these issues. The fundamental problem faced by these philosopher was that there was almost no way to solve their claims. Most of the philosopher did not conduct these issues, but one of the reasons was that they did not know how to do it yet, and that it was possible to objectively study human experience. It was not. However, in the 1800s, dramatic changes occurred with the help of the first two researchers. Figure 1. 3 Initial psychologists are the first psychologists of Greek philosopher Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato believed that a lot of knowledge was born, and Aristotle believed that all children were born as "empty plates" and their knowledge was mainly acquired through learning and experience.	European philosopher continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance period. For example, French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) also adopted the problem of free will, claiming that the mind controls the body through the pine benefits of the brain (then at that time (at that time, at that time). It was a certain point of reason, but it was proved later that it was wrong). Descartes also believed in the existence of natural natural abilities. Descartes, who were also scientists and philosopher, first understood that they intervened in animals and that their nerves were controlling muscles. He also mentions the relationship between the mind (the spiritual aspect of life) and the body (the physical aspect of life). Descartes believed the dual principle that the heart was fundamentally different from a mechanical body. Other European philosophers such as Thomas Hobbs (1588-1679), John Rock (1632-1704), and Jean Jack Rousseau (1712-1778) also emphasized these issues. The fundamental problem faced by these philosopher was that there was almost no way to solve their claims. Most of the philosopher did not conduct these issues, but one of the reasons was that they did not know how to do it yet, and that it was possible to objectively study human experience. It was not. However, in the 1800s, dramatic changes occurred with the help of the first two researchers.
Wundt's research in his Leipzig laboratory focused on the nature of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify conscious experience scientifically. Wundt started what is known as structuralism, a branch of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements or structures of psychological experience. His goal was to create a periodic table of the elements of the senses, similar to the periodic table of the elements recently created in chemistry. Structuralists attempted to map the elements of consciousness using a method called introspection. Introspection involves asking study participants to describe exactly what they experience when they perform a mental task, such as seeing colors, reading the pages of a book, or solving a math problem. For example, a participant reading a book might report that they see straight and curved black and colored marks on a white background. In other studies, structuralists used newly invented reaction time meters to systematically assess not only what participants were thinking but also how long it took them to do so. Wundt found that it took people longer to report a sound they had just heard than it did to simply say that they had heard a sound.	Figure 1. 4 Wundt and Titchner. Wilhelm Wundt (left) and Edward Titchner (right) helped found the structuralist school of psychology. Their goal was to classify the elements of our senses through introspection. Wundt's research in his Leipzig laboratory focused on the nature of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to scientifically classify conscious experience. Wundt started the field known as structuralism, a school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements or structure of psychological experience. His goal was to create a periodic table of the elements of our senses, similar to the periodic table of elements recently created in chemistry. Structuralists attempted to map the elements of consciousness using a method called introspection. Introspection involves asking study participants to accurately describe what they experience when performing a mental task such as seeing colors, reading the pages of a book, or solving a math problem. For example, a participant reading a book might report seeing black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background. In other studies, structuralists used newly invented reaction time machines to systematically assess not only what participants were thinking but also how long it took them to do so. Wundt found that it took longer to report a sound that one had just heard than to simply say that one heard a sound.	Figure 1. 4 Wundt and Titchner. Wilhelm Wundt (left) and Edward Titchner (right) helped found the Structuralist school of psychology. Their goal was to classify the elements of sensation through introspection. Wundt's research in his Leipzig laboratory focused on the nature of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to scientifically classify conscious experience. Wundt started the field known as structuralism, a school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements or structures of psychological experience. His goal was to create a periodic table of the elements of sensation, similar to the periodic table of elements recently created in chemistry. Structuralists attempted to map the elements of consciousness using a method of introspection. Introspection involves asking study participants to accurately describe what they experience when performing a mental task, such as seeing colors, reading the pages of a book, or solving a math problem. For example, participants reading a book might report seeing black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background. In other studies, structuralists used newly invented reaction time meters to systematically assess not only what participants were thinking but also how long it took them to do so. Wundt found that it took longer to report a sound they had just heard than to simply respond that they had heard a sound.

Psychology in Everyday Life: How to Effectively Learn and Remember

Figure 1. 4 Wundt and Titchner. Wilhelm Wundt (left) and Edward Titchner (right) helped found the structuralist school of psychology. Their goal was to categorize the elements of sensation through introspection.

Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener was a student of Wundt, who came to the United States in the late 1800s and established a laboratory at Cornell University (Figure 1. 4). Titchener was later rejected by McGill University (1903). Perhaps ahead of his time, Brenda Milner opened the Montreal Neurological Institute in 1950). In his endoscopy studies, Titchener and his students claimed to have identified over 40, 000 senses, including sight, hearing, and taste. The key to the structuralist approach was that it was rigorous and scientific. This work marked the beginning of psychology as a science, since it proved that mental events could be quantified. However, structuralists also discovered the limitations of introspection. Even highly trained study participants often failed to report their subjective experiences. When participants were asked to solve simple math problems, they could solve them easily, but they could not easily answer how they solved them. Thus, structuralists were the first to realize the importance of unconscious processes.

Unlike Wundt, who tried to understand the nature of consciousness, William James and other members of the functional school aimed to understand why animals and humans have the special psychological aspects they have today (Hunt, 1993). For James, one's thoughts were only related to one's actions. In his Psychology book, he stated, "My thoughts are first and last, and always for my actions" (James, 1890). James and other members of the functional school (Figure 1. 5) were influenced by Charles Darwin's (1809-1882) theory of natural selection. Functionalists believed that Darwin's theory also applied to psychological traits. Just as some animals developed strong muscles to run faster, functionalists believed that the human brain must have adapted to perform certain functions in the human experience.

Fig. 1. 5 The Psychology Functional School, which was founded by the American psychologist William James (left), was influenced by Charles Darwin (right) research.

Perhaps the best-known psychology of the general public will be a mental approach to understand the behavior, advocated by Geekmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers. Mental psychology is an approach to understand human behavior, focusing on the role of unconscious thoughts, emotions, and memories. Freud (Fig. 1. 6) developed the theory of behavior through a wide range of analysis of patients treated in individual clinical practice. Freud believed that many of his experiences, such as anxiety, depression, and sexual dysfunction, were the result of the hardships of childhood pain, which can no longer be remembered.

Figure 1. 6 Psychiatrists in psychiatric dynamics, including Sigmund Freud Geekmund Freud, believed that many of our thoughts and emotions were unconscious. Psychotherapy was devised to help patients restore "lost" memories and to deal with them.

Key Takeaways

• Freud's thoughts were Karl Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Karen Horney (1855-1952), and Eric Ericsson (1902-1994). Expanded by psychologists. These people and other people who follow the mental approach will help patients by exploring the initial sexual experiences and current sexual needs, especially if they can remember unconscious disks. I believe you can. These quests are revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis in a process called psychoanalysis. The founders of the Psychodai Namikus school were mainly experts, understanding and helping to deal with personal psychological symptoms. They did not do much research on their thoughts, and verification of more sophisticated theories conducted later did not necessarily support their proposals, but still psychiatry is the field of psychology. And it actually had a major impact on the concept of human behavior in general (MOORE & AMP; AMP; Fine, 1995). The concept of unconsciousness in human behavior, the idea that childhood experience is important, and the concept of therapy as a way to improve human life, all of the psychology, derived from psychiatric approaches. It is a way of thinking.
• Though their approaches differ, both structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies of the mind. Psychologists belonging to the behavioral school, on the other hand, were partly rebelling against the difficulties psychologists encountered when trying to use introspection to understand behavior. Behaviorism is a school of psychology based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should turn their attention to the study of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a black box into which stimuli are sent and responses are returned. They argue that it is pointless to try to uncover what goes on inside the brain, since we can predict behavior without knowing what goes on inside it. Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws of learning that can explain all behavior. The first behaviorist was the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958). Watson was heavily influenced by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who discovered that dogs would become silent when they heard a sound associated with the presentation of food. Watson and other behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how humans and other organisms react to events. Although their approaches differ, structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies of the mind. On the other hand, behavioral psychologists were partly rebelling against the difficulties psychologists encountered when trying to use introspection to understand behavior. Behaviorism is a school of psychology based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should focus their attention on the study of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a black box into which stimuli are sent and responses are returned. They argue that since we can predict behavior without knowing what goes on inside the brain, there is no point in trying to figure out what goes on inside the box. Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws of learning that can explain all behavior. The first behaviorist was the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958). Watson was heavily influenced by the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who found that dogs would go silent when they heard a sound associated with the presentation of food. Watson and other behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how humans and other organisms react to events. Although their approaches differed, both structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies of the mind. On the other hand, behavioral psychologists were in part rebellious against the difficulties psychologists encountered when trying to use introspection to understand behavior. Behaviorism is a school of psychology based on the premise that it is impossible to study the mind objectively, and therefore psychologists should turn their attention to the study of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a black box into which stimuli are sent and responses are returned. They argue that since we can predict behavior without knowing what goes on inside the brain, there is no point in trying to figure out what goes on inside the box. Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws of learning that can explain all behavior. The first behaviorist was the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878-1958). Watson was heavily influenced by the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who discovered that dogs became silent when they heard a sound associated with the presentation of food. Watson and other behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how humans and other organisms react to certain events.
• She screamed and tried to escape from a rat. According to the behavioral approach, the boy learned a loud noise with white rats, and as a result, he began to cry.
• Figure 1. 7 Skinner B. F. Skinners argued that they are a member of the behavioralist psychology, the free will is an illusion, and all actions are determined by environmental factors.
• The most famous behavioralists were Barfs Frederick (B. F.) and Skinner (1904-1990), who expanded the principle of behavioralism and focused on the general public. Skinner (Figure 1. 7) used the concept of stimuli and reaction, as well as pigments and other animal training, as well as rewards and reinforcements. He used the general principles of action to develop the theory of how to teach children and how to create a peaceful and productive society. Skinners have developed a method of studying thinking and emotions using the behavioral approach (Skinner, 1957, 1972).
• The behavioral research program gave important suggestions on basic questions about naturally growing up and free will. In the discussion on nature, the behavioralist agreed to the chil d-rearing approach and thought that humans would be formed only by the environment. They also argued that there was no free will and our actions were determined by the events they had experienced in the past. In short, this approach claims that human organisms are like a puppet that does not notice that others are being manipulated. In addition, we believe that we are not causing our actions, but we are not aware of all the effects that are acting on ourselves. < SPAN> She screamed and tried to escape from the rat. According to the behavioral approach, the boy learned a loud noise with white rats, and as a result, he began to cry.
• Figure 1. 7 Skinner B. F. Skinners argued that they are a member of the behavioralist psychology, the free will is an illusion, and all actions are determined by environmental factors.
• The most famous behavioralists were Barfs Frederick (B. F.) and Skinner (1904-1990), who expanded the principle of behavioralism and focused on the general public. Skinners (Fig. 1. 7) used the concept of stimuli and reactions, as well as pigments and other animals training, as well as rewards and enhancements. He used the general principles of action to develop the theory of how to teach children and how to create a peaceful and productive society. Skinners have developed a method of studying thinking and emotions using the behavioral approach (Skinner, 1957, 1972).

Exercises and Critical Thinking

1. The behavioral research program gave important suggestions on basic questions about naturally growing up and free will. In the discussion on nature, the behavioralist agreed to the chil d-rearing approach and thought that humans would be formed only by the environment. They also argued that there was no free will and our actions were determined by the events they had experienced in the past. In short, this approach claims that human organisms are like a puppet that does not notice that others are being manipulated. In addition, we believe that we are not causing our actions, but we are not aware of all the effects that are acting on ourselves. She screamed and tried to escape from a rat. According to the behavioral approach, the boy learned a loud noise with white rats, and as a result, he began to cry.
2. Figure 1. 7 Skinner B. F. Skinners argued that they are a member of the behavioralist psychology, the free will is an illusion, and all actions are determined by environmental factors.
3. The most famous behavioralists were Barfs Frederick (B. F.) and Skinner (1904-1990), who expanded the principle of behavioralism and focused on the general public. Skinner (Figure 1. 7) used the concept of stimuli and reaction, as well as pigments and other animal training, as well as rewards and reinforcements. He used the general principles of action to develop the theory of how to teach children and how to create a peaceful and productive society. Skinners have developed a method of studying thinking and emotions using the behavioral approach (Skinner, 1957, 1972).

References

The behavioral research program gave important suggestions on basic questions about naturally growing up and free will. In the discussion on nature, the behavioralist agreed to the chil d-rearing approach and thought that humans would be formed only by the environment. They also argued that there was no free will and our actions were determined by the events they had experienced in the past. In short, this approach claims that human organisms are like a puppet that does not notice that others are being manipulated. In addition, we believe that we are not causing our actions, but we are not aware of all the effects that are acting on ourselves.

Recent psychological research suggests that Skinners and Bingy Beerlis may be correct. At least in the sense that we overestimate our own free will (libet, 1985; matsuhash & amp; Hallett, 2008; Wegner, 2002). Neuroscient Brass, Heines, and Heinnes (2008) put the research participants on a functional magnetic resonance scanner (FMRI) and showed a series of characters on the computer screen. The characters on the screen changed every half second. Each time, the participants were asked whether to press either two buttons. Then, when I wanted to press the button, I was asked to answer which character displayed on the screen was. Researchers analyzed the image of the brain and examined whether the participants could predict which button they were trying to push. Researchers discovered that the fron t-front cortical region of the brain has revitalized which button to press, 10 seconds before the participant decides which button has been decided. did. < SPAN> Recent psychological research suggests that Skinners and Beahabiaris may be correct. At least in the sense that we overestimate our own free will (libet, 1985; matsuhash & amp; Hallett, 2008; Wegner, 2002). Neuroscient Brass, Heines, and Heinnes (2008) put the research participants on a functional magnetic resonance scanner (FMRI) and showed a series of characters on the computer screen. The characters on the screen changed every half second. Each time, the participants were asked whether to press either two buttons. Then, when I wanted to press the button, I was asked to answer which character displayed on the screen was. Researchers analyzed the image of the brain and examined whether the participants could predict which button they were trying to push. Researchers discovered that the fron t-front cortical region of the brain has revitalized which button to press, 10 seconds before the participant decides which button has been decided. did. Recent psychological research suggests that Skinners and Bingy Beerlis may be correct. At least in the sense that we overestimate our own free will (libet, 1985; matsuhash & amp; Hallett, 2008; Wegner, 2002). Neuroscient Brass, Heines, and Heinnes (2008) put the research participants on a functional magnetic resonance scanner (FMRI) and showed a series of characters on the computer screen. The characters on the screen changed every half second. Each time, the participants were asked whether to press either two buttons. Then, when I wanted to press the button, I was asked to answer which character displayed on the screen was. Researchers analyzed the image of the brain and examined whether the participants could predict which button they were trying to push. Researchers discovered that the fron t-front cortical region of the brain has revitalized which button to press, 10 seconds before the participant decides which button has been decided. did.

According to the research, the desire to act occurs just before the result, the thoughts match the results, and if there is no other obvious reason in action, it is easy to think that we are controlling our actions. I am. AARTS, Customers, and Wegner (2005) called for research participants to control the fas t-moving square together with a computer that also controlled the square independently. Participants pressed the button to stop the movement. Just before stopping the movement, listening to words related to the square position, the participants tend to think that they are controlling their movements, even if they actually stopped the movement. Ta. Also, DIJKSTERHUIS, PRESTON, WEGNER, AND AARTS (2008) is just after the participants who saw the term "computer" and "god" touched the unique firs t-person nouns such as "I" or "I". I found. In some situations, the idea that it is easier to own their own actions than in other situations is also found in the belonging to success and failure. We usually believe that success is the result of our free will, as we usually hope that our actions will be satisfied with success. On the other hand, if a certain action fails, it is difficult to recognize it as the result of his free will.

Actionists have contributed to psychology by defining the principles of learning. The behavioralists were wrong in the belief that it was impossible to measure their thoughts and emotions, but their thoughts provided new insights to help discuss nature and understand the issues of free will. The concept of behavioralism is the basis of psychology, and has developed to better understand the role of pr e-experience in various fields of psychology. According to the < Span> research, it is easy to think that if the desire to act occurs just before the result, the thought is consistent with the result, and there is no other obvious reason in action, we are controlling their actions. I know. AARTS, Customers, and Wegner (2005) called for research participants to control the fas t-moving square together with a computer that also controlled the square independently. Participants pressed the button to stop the movement. Just before stopping the movement, listening to words related to the square position, the participants tend to think that they are controlling their movements, even if they actually stopped the movement. Ta. Also, DIJKSTERHUIS, PRESTON, WEGNER, AND AARTS (2008) is just after the participants who saw the term "computer" and "god" touched the unique firs t-person nouns such as "I" or "I". I found. In some situations, the idea that it is easier to own their own actions than in other situations is also found in the belonging to success and failure. We usually believe that success is the result of our free will, as we usually hope that our actions will be satisfied with success. On the other hand, if a certain action fails, it is difficult to recognize it as the result of his free will.

Actionists have contributed to psychology by defining the principles of learning. The behavioralists were wrong in the belief that it was impossible to measure their thoughts and emotions, but their thoughts provided new insights to help discuss nature and understand the issues of free will. The concept of behavioralism is the basis of psychology, and has developed to better understand the role of pr e-experience in various fields of psychology. According to the research, the desire to act occurs just before the result, the thoughts match the results, and if there is no other obvious reason in action, it is easy to think that we are controlling our actions. I am. AARTS, Customers, and Wegner (2005) called for research participants to control the fas t-moving square together with a computer that also controlled the square independently. Participants pressed the button to stop the movement. Just before stopping the movement, listening to words related to the square position, the participants tend to think that they are controlling their movements, even if they actually stopped the movement. Ta. Also, DIJKSTERHUIS, PRESTON, WEGNER, AND AARTS (2008) is just after the participants who saw the term "computer" and "god" touched the unique firs t-person nouns such as "I" or "I". I found. In some situations, the idea that it is easier to own their own actions than in other situations is also found in the belonging to success and failure. We usually believe that success is the result of our free will, as we usually hope that our actions will be satisfied with success. On the other hand, if a certain action fails, it is difficult to recognize it as the result of his free will.

Actionists have contributed to psychology by defining the principles of learning. The behaviorists were wrong in the belief that it was impossible to measure their thoughts and emotions, but their thoughts provided new insights to help discuss nature and understand the issues of free will. The concept of behavioralism is the basis of psychology, and has developed to better understand the role of pr e-experience in various fields of psychology.

Science is always influenced by the technology that surrounds it, and psychology is no exception. It is therefore not surprising that from the 1960s onwards, psychologists increasingly began to think about the brain and human behaviour in terms of the computers that were then being developed and generally available. The brain-computer analogy, while by no means perfect, was part of the impetus for the creation of a new school of psychology called cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that studies mental processes such as perception, thought, memory and judgment. These operations correspond well to the processes that computers perform. Cognitive psychology really began in the 1960s, but earlier psychologists were also cognitively oriented. Important contributors to cognitive psychology include German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), who studied people's ability to memorise lists of words under various conditions, and British psychologist Sir Frederick Bartlett (1886-1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes of memory. Bartlett created short stories that were logical in a way, but contained very unusual and unexpected events. Bartlett found that people have difficulty remembering acute events.

The Ghost War is a story used by Sir Frederick Bartlett to test the effect of past expectations on memory. Bartlett found that British study participants still had difficulty recalling the story after reading it several times, and he believed this was because it did not match their prior knowledge. Two Eglach youths went to the river one night to hunt seals. They heard the sounds of battle: "Perhaps this is a war party". They went to the shore and hid behind a log. They heard the sound of oars and saw a canoe approaching. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "How is it, how is it, we are coming to the river to make war on the people". One of the young men said: "The arrow is in the canoe. The arrow is in the canoe. I will not go, for I may be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you said to the other, "So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. The warriors went up the river, to the town on the other side of the Kalama River. People went down to the water's edge and began fighting, and many were killed. But today the young man heard one of the warriors say, "Hurry, let's go home."

In asserting that our thoughts have a strong influence on our behavior, the cognitive approach offered a clear alternative to behavior. According to cognitive psychologists, it is never enough to violate the mind itself, because people interpret the stimuli they experience. For example, if a boy tells a girl "You're so cute" during a date, behaviorists would see this as a reinforcing (positive) stimulus. But a girl may not be so easily fooled. She may try to understand why the boy makes this particular statement at this particular time, and may wonder if he is trying to influence her through that statement. Cognitive psychologists argue that behavior can be better understood if we take into account how stimuli are evaluated and interpreted. Cognitive psychology remains highly influential today, and has led research in diverse fields such as language, problem solving, memory, intelligence, education, human development, social psychology, and psychotherapy. The cognitive revolution has been further invigorated in the last decade, when neuroimaging techniques have been used to see how the brain works. Neuroimaging is the imaging of the structure and function of the brain using a variety of techniques.

The final school of thought that took a more sophisticated analysis and had a major impact on psychology can be loosely called the sociocultural approach. The field of sociocultural psychology studies how the social context and culture in which people find themselves affect how they think and behave. Sociocultural psychologists are particularly interested in how people perceive themselves and others, and how people influence each other's behavior. For example, social psychologists have discovered that we are attracted to others who are similar to us in their attitudes and interests (Byrne, 1969), that we develop our beliefs and attitudes by comparing our views with those of others (Festinger, 1954), and that we often change our own beliefs and attitudes to be the same as those of the people we care about (a process known as conformity). An important aspect of sociocultural psychology is social norms - ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are shared by members of a group and perceived as appropriate (Asch, 1952; Cialdini, 1993). Rules include conventions, traditions, norms, and norms, as well as the general values ​​of a group. Many of the most important social norms are

Children of European and American culture will appreciate themselves, and enjoy getting Venus in the project and achieving the best in classes. Adults in Western culture often aim to promote their own success, compared to others (or at the expense of others). On the other hand, the norms of East Asian culture are intended for mutual dependence and reasoning. In these cultures, children are taught to concentrate on building a harmonious social relationship with others. The dominant rules are connected to the unity of the group, the duty and responsibility for family and other groups. People in the East Asian Cultural Area tend to answer that they are particularly interested in others' interests, including close friends and colleagues, rather than those in the Western culture. ").

Figure 1. 8 In the Oriental and Western culture, social norms promote sel f-centered (individualism), while oriental culture emphasizes family and social associations (collectiveism).

Another important difference in culture is that people in different cultural spaces are tied to social rules and habits. Rather, regardless of social rules, you can freely express your personality (Chan, Gelfand, Triandis, & Amp; Tzeng, 1996). Culture also has different personal space, such as how close each other stands when talking, and the communication style used. It is important to be aware of the differences in culture and culture, as people with different cultural backgrounds are increasing due to the increase in travel and migration, the development of the Internet and other communication methods. For example, in Canada, there are various ethnic groups, and the population ratio of the minority group is increasing year by year. The social cultural approach to understanding the behavior reminds me of the difficulty of roughly generalizing the essence of humans. Various people experience various things and have various experiences in various cultures. < SPAN> Children in European and American culture will appreciate themselves, and enjoy the best results in the projects and get the best in classes. Adults in Western culture often aim to promote their own success, compared to others (or at the expense of others). On the other hand, the norms of East Asian culture are intended for mutual dependence and reasoning. In these cultures, children are taught to concentrate on building a harmonious social relationship with others. The dominant rules are connected to the unity of the group, the duty and responsibility for family and other groups. People in the East Asian Cultural Area tend to answer that they are particularly interested in others' interests, including close friends and colleagues, including those in the Western culture. ").

Figure 1. 8 In the Oriental and Western culture, social norms promote sel f-centered (individualism), while oriental culture emphasizes family and social associations (collectiveism).

Another important difference in culture is that people in different cultural spaces are tied to social rules and habits. Rather, regardless of social rules, you can freely express your personality (Chan, Gelfand, Triandis, & Amp; Tzeng, 1996). Culture also has different personal space, such as how close each other stands when talking, and the communication style used. It is important to be aware of the differences in culture and culture, as people with different cultural backgrounds are increasing due to the increase in travel and migration, the development of the Internet and other communication methods. For example, in Canada, there are various ethnic groups, and the population ratio of the minority group is increasing year by year. The social cultural approach to understanding the behavior reminds me of the difficulty of roughly generalizing the essence of humans. Various people experience various things and have various experiences in various cultures. Children of European and American culture will appreciate themselves, and enjoy getting Venus in the project and achieving the best in classes. Adults in Western culture often aim to promote their own success, compared to others (or at the expense of others). On the other hand, the norms of East Asian culture are intended for mutual dependence and reasoning. In these cultures, children are taught to concentrate on building a harmonious social relationship with others. The dominant rules are connected to the unity of the group, the duty and responsibility for family and other groups. People in the East Asian Cultural Area tend to answer that they are particularly interested in others' interests, including close friends and colleagues, rather than those in the Western culture. ").

Figure 1. 8 In the Oriental and Western culture, social norms promote sel f-centered (individualism), while oriental culture emphasizes family and social associations (collectiveism).

Another important difference in culture is that people in different cultural spaces are tied to social rules and habits. Rather, regardless of social rules, you can freely express your personality (Chan, Gelfand, Triandis, & Amp; Tzeng, 1996). Culture also has different personal space, such as how close each other stands when talking, and the communication style used. It is important to be aware of the differences in culture and culture, as people with different cultural backgrounds have increased in contact with each other due to the increase in travel and migration, the development of the Internet and other communications. For example, in Canada, there are various ethnic groups, and the population ratio of the minority group is increasing year by year. The social cultural approach to understanding behavior reminds me of the difficulty of roughly generalizing the essence of humans. Various people experience various things and have various experiences in various cultures.

Psychology is not one discipline, but a collection of many sub-disciplines, all of which share at least some common approaches and work together to form a coherent discipline (Yang & Chiu, 2009). Because the field of psychology is so broad, students may wonder which field best suits their interests and what careers are available. Table 1. 5, "Some career paths in psychology," can help students think through the answers to such questions. You can learn more about the different fields of psychology and the careers associated with them at http://www. psyccareers. com/.

Table 1. Five career paths in psychology.

[Table omitted]

Fields of Psychology

Description

Career Opportunities

Biopsychology and Neuroscience

This field examines the physiological basis of animal and human behavior by studying the function of different parts of the brain and the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on behavior.

Most biopsychologists work in research settings, such as universities, federal government, and private laboratories.

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

The largest branch of psychology. It focuses on the assessment, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders.

Clinical and counseling psychologists provide treatment to patients with the goal of improving their life experiences. They work in hospitals, schools, social service agencies, and private practices. Because of the high demand for this profession, admission to academic programs is highly competitive.

Cognitive Psychology

This field studies people's memory, language, and thinking using advanced research methods such as reaction time and brain imaging.

Cognitive psychologists work primarily in research settings, although some (such as those who specialize in human-computer interaction) consult for companies.

Developmental Psychology

These psychologists conduct research on cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur throughout the lifespan.

Many work in research settings, but some work in schools and community agencies to improve and evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs such as Head Start.

Forensic Psychology Forensic psychologists apply the principles of psychology to understand the behavior of people involved in the criminal justice system, including judges, lawyers, and courtroom jurors.

Law psychologists are involved in the criminal judicial system. They can testify in court and provide information on the credibility of witness testimony and the selection of jury.

Health psychology